Pakistan came into being on the basis of the Two-Nation Theory, which means that the Muslims of India are a separate nation. The Two-Nation Theory is also called the Ideology of Pakistan.
The word "Ideology" is composed of two Greek words "ideo" and "logos" which means the study or science of ideas. We may call the collective thinking of a community or their set of beliefs and values as ideology. The ideology of a nation always reflects the state of people's minds, their hopes, emotions, aspirations, ideals, and objectives as well as enduring its determination to achieve them.
The ideology of Pakistan stems from the belief that Muslims of the sub-continent constitute a distinct nation. It is based on the belief that Muslims have a different religion, culture, civilization, history, and way of life which distinguish them from other communities of India.
Despite living more than a thousand years together with other communities of India, the Muslims of the subcontinent maintained their individuality and could not merge with them. Their separate identity was due to their adherence to the principles of Islam, which made them a separate nation. On the grounds of their separate identity, the Muslims demanded a separate homeland for themselves.
There are four basic components of the ideology of Pakistan:
Islam is the foundation of the creation of Pakistan. The Muslims of the sub-continent demanded a separate country because they wanted to implement the principles of Islam in a new state. They thought that the implementation of guiding principles of Islam in a new state could lead them towards success in this life and life hereafter.
One of the objectives of the demand of Pakistan was to enforce such a type of democracy where the rights of minorities would also be safeguarded. Minorities would have freedom of expression and the right to profess their religion. Both minority and majority would be equal before the law, and the rights of minorities would be equally protected by the state.
The purpose of the ideology of Pakistan was to foster social justice and equality among the citizens. Explaining social justice and equality, Quaid-i-Azam stated:
"Islam has taught equality of man, justice, and fair play to everybody. We are the inheritors of those glorious traditions, and we are fully alive to our responsibilities and obligations as framers of the future constitution of Pakistan."
Fundamental rights include protection of life, property, liberty, freedom of worship, and freedom of expression. The Muslims were not enjoying these rights in united India. Their lives and properties were not protected in those provinces of united India where they were in the minority. To protect all these rights for the Muslims was an important component of the ideology of Pakistan.
The arrival of Muslims in India began in the middle of the seventh century during the rule of pious caliphs (RA). Muslim traders and Sufis came to India and introduced the teachings of Islam to local people. Yet the first Muslim conquest in India occurred in 712 A.D, when Muhammad Bin Qasim conquered a large part of Sindh. After this conquest, many Sufis and preachers came to India, and they spread the teachings of Islam. Many people influenced by their character, devotion, and human affection embraced Islam. The indigenous people who embraced Islam began to consider themselves a separate community.
Before that, many conquerors came to India, but the foundation of Muslim rule in India was laid in 1206 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, which lasted till 1857. During Muslim rule, different movements were launched to merge Muslims into Indian society, but all these efforts met with failure and the Muslim community maintained its separate identity.
The imposition of the British Raj in India in the nineteenth century further strengthened the Two-Nation Theory. Muslims became more conscious of their rights and identity because they were merely a quarter of the Indian population. During the time of British Raj, few people began to propagate the concept of Indian nationalism which means that all the people residing in India were a single nation.
The British came to the sub-continent at the beginning of the seventeenth century for the purpose of trade. However, by taking advantage of disunity among the Indians, they began to conquer different parts of India. The Indians realised that the British were exploiting their resources, so they tried to oust them from India and fought a war against them in 1857, which is called the "War of Independence".
Unfortunately, the Indians were defeated in this war largely because of their disunity and lack of modern weaponry. Muslim rule in India ended after British victory in the War of Independence and British Raj began in 1858. Although the War of Independence was fought by all the communities of India, the British held Muslims responsible for this war.
The Aligarh Movement was launched by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) to equip Muslims with modern education and to promote awareness among them. Sir Syed was an employee of the East India Company and was serving as a judge when the War of Independence broke out.
Sir Syed was of the opinion that opposition to colonial masters was pointless because they were technologically more advanced and therefore powerful. He believed that Muslims should obtain modern scientific education and should not oppose the English language. He advised the Muslims to develop cordial relations with the British. Similarly, he forbade them from participating in politics as it would lead them towards confrontations with the British.
Sir Syed established several educational institutions to equip Muslims with modern education.
Sir Syed was the first person to use the word "Nation" for the Muslims of the sub-continent. In the beginning, Sir Syed considered Hindus and Muslims a single nation. But when Hindus of Banaras launched a movement in 1867 to replace Urdu with Hindi as the official language, he came to the conclusion that Muslims are a separate nation.
Impact of Aligarh Movement Aligarh movement encouraged Muslims to achieve modern education. It also helped bridge the gap between the government and the Muslim nation. Many alumni of MAO College later secured key positions in government. The students of Aligarh also played a pivotal role during the freedom movement.
The formation of the All India Muslim League took place during the annual session of the Muhammadan Educational Conference which was held at Dacca on 30 December 1906. Sir Agha Khan was appointed its president.
Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal in 1905 into two provinces (East Bengal and West Bengal) purely on administrative grounds. The Muslims were happy over the partition because they emerged as a majority in East Bengal, but the Hindus of Bengal began to protest and pressed for annulment of the partition.
Thirty-five prominent Muslim leaders from all over India under the leadership of Sir Agha Khan met with Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla on 1 October 1906 and presented the demands of their community. They demanded separate electorates, reserved quotas for Muslims in government jobs, and representation in councils.
Following were the objectives of AIML at the time of its formation:
Upon the suggestion of Quaid-i-Azam (RA), the Muslim League changed its objectives in March 1913. Instead of unconditional cooperation with the government, the AIML decided to work for the attainment of self-government. This led to the Lucknow Pact, where Congress accepted the Muslim's demands of separate electorates and 1/3 representation in the Central Assembly.
During World War-I (1914-1918), the Ottoman Empire was aligned with Germany. Muslims of India had great regard for the Ottoman Empire because it was the seat of the Caliph. The Muslims of India, in support of Türkiye, launched a movement which is called the Khilafat Movement.
Followings were the main objectives of the Khilafat Movement:
Mustafa Kamal Ataturk announced to abolish the Khilafat in 1924 and declared Turkey to be a republic state. After this, there was no justification to carry on the Khilafat movement in India.
In 1927, Quaid-i-Azam (RA) presented the Delhi Proposals in which he agreed to give up separate electorates provided that new Muslim majority provinces of NWFP, Sindh, and Baluchistan were created.
In 1928, the Nehru Committee was formed to draft proposals for India's future Constitution. The committee completely ignored the demands of Muslims. Muslims were deprived of the right to 1/3 representation and separate electorates.
In reply to the Nehru Report, Quaid-i-Azam (RA) presented his "Fourteen Points" in which he talked about the rights and demands of Muslims.
Allama Iqbal presided over the Annual Session of Muslim League held at Allahabad in 1930 in which he talked about a separate homeland for the Muslims. Iqbal said:
"I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State... the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims."
Three Round Table Conferences were held in London to resolve communal problems and discuss future constitutional reform. However, the Conferences failed to achieve their objective and constitutional deadlock subsisted.
In 1937, provincial elections were held. Congress obtained overwhelming victory and ruled in 8 out of 11 provinces. Their rule was marked by prejudicial steps:
When Congress ministries resigned in 1939, Quaid-i-Azam (RA) announced to celebrate 22 December 1939 as the "Day of Deliverance".
On 23 March 1940, at Minto Park Lahore, A.K. Fazl-ul-Haq presented the Lahore Resolution. It demanded that Muslim majority areas in the North-Western and Eastern Zones of India should be grouped to constitute 'Independent States'.
Sir Stafford Cripps presented a plan in 1942. For the first time, the British government acknowledged India's right to be a dominion and allowed provinces the right to secede, which was a nod toward the Pakistan demand.
The talks were held in September 1944 at Quaid-i-Azam's residence but ended in failure as Gandhi refused to accept the Two-Nation Theory before the British left India.
Viceroy Lord Wavell called a conference to discuss the formation of an Executive Council. It failed because Quaid-i-Azam insisted that the Muslim League had the sole right to nominate Muslim members.
The Muslim League performed exceptionally, winning all 30 reserved seats in the Central Legislature and 466 out of 495 Muslim seats in provincial assemblies.
The plan proposed a federation with three groups of provinces:
On 26 October 1946, five Muslim League members joined the interim government. Liaquat Ali Khan was given the Ministry of Finance.
Lord Mountbatten announced the partition plan on 3 June 1947. Power was to be transferred on 15 August 1947. The plan was legalized via the Indian Independence Act.
The British government appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe as Chairman of the Boundary Commission to demarcate Punjab and Bengal.
Radcliffe announced the demarcation on 17 August 1947. The award was highly controversial and biased against Pakistan.
Karachi was chosen as the capital but lacked infrastructure. There was a severe shortage of experienced officers and office equipment.
Pakistan was entitled to 750 million rupees. India initially released only 200 million and delayed the rest to cripple the new state's economy.
Pakistan did not receive its fair share of military equipment. Out of 16 ordnance factories, none were located in Pakistan's territory.
India stopped the water supply to Pakistan's canals in April 1948. This was eventually settled by the Indus Water Treaty in 1960.
Almost 6.5 million refugees migrated to Pakistan. Quaid-i-Azam established the "Refugee Relief Fund" to manage this humanitarian crisis.
The Govt of India Act 1935 served as the interim constitution. It took nine years to frame the first constitution (1956).
States like Junagarh, Hyderabad, and Kashmir faced issues. India forcefully annexed Junagarh and Hyderabad.
Kashmir was a Muslim majority state (77%). In 1846, the British sold it to Gulab Singh (Dogra Rule).
In 1947, Kashmiris started a freedom struggle. Tribal lashkars from Pakistan joined to help. India sent its army on 27 October 1947. A portion was liberated, now called Azad Kashmir.
The UN passed a resolution for a plebiscite (vote) to allow Kashmiris to decide their future, which India has failed to implement.
On 5 August 2019, the Indian government revoked the special status of Kashmir, attempting to change its demographic makeup.
Pakistan observes 5 February as Kashmir Solidarity Day. Quaid-i-Azam described Kashmir as the "jugular vein" of Pakistan.