5.2 Parasitic Nature of Virus

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning they can only replicate inside a living host cell. They exhibit a high degree of specificity for their hosts. This nature makes them an exception to the Cell Theory→ as they lack a cellular structure and independent metabolism.

Mechanism: Viruses possess protein spikes on their surface that bind to specific receptor sites on the host cell membrane. This lock-and-key mechanism, often involving Cell Signaling→ receptors, determines the virus's host range.

Host Range:

• Narrow Range: Infects only a specific species or cell type.

  • Example: Bacteriophages infect only bacteria.
  • Example: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infects only certain types of human white blood cells (Helper T-cells).
  • Example: Poliovirus reproduces in human and primate spinal nerve cells.

• Broad Range: Can infect multiple species.

  • Example: The rabies virus can infect all mammalian cells.

Dependence on Host Cell for Life Cycle

An isolated virus is metabolically inert and cannot reproduce on its own. Viruses lack essential cellular machinery, such as metabolic enzymes and ribosomes, which are required for protein synthesis and energy production.

They must hijack the host cell's machinery to replicate their viral genome and synthesize viral proteins, effectively forcing the host cell to produce new viruses. Because they rely on host metabolic pathways rather than their own, antibiotics (which target bacterial metabolism) are ineffective against them.

Survival Mechanisms Inside a Host Cell

• Immune Evasion: Viruses can hide from the host's immune system once inside a cell, making them difficult to detect.
• Rapid Genetic Change (Mutation): Viruses can rapidly alter their genetic constitution, which can render host antibodies and vaccines ineffective. This is a "living" characteristic as it allows for evolution and adaptation.
• Protection of Genome: The viral capsid protects the viral genome (DNA or RNA) from being destroyed by the host cell's nuclease enzymes, which are designed to break down foreign nucleic acids.

Survival Outside a Host Cell (Virion State)

Outside a host, viruses exist in a dormant, non-living state and do not require food or perform metabolic activities. They can often be crystallized, a property shared with non-living chemicals.

Their viability is threatened by environmental factors like extreme pH and temperature, which can denature the proteins in their capsid. The virulence (ability to cause disease) of a virus is maintained for a specific period, which varies depending on the virus and environmental conditions.